Proso millet flour (PMF) is a sustainable cereal ingredient with significant potential for nutritional and functional food applications. This study investigated the effect of high-energy ball milling (BM) at two specific energy inputs, 31 J g−1 (BM-31) and 62 J g−1 (BM-62), as a solvent-free strategy to enhance the tribological properties of PMF suspensions (15% w/v). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), rheology, tribology, and microscopy across multiple length scales were used to understand the relationship between structural modification, hydration, and frictional behavior. Among the treatments, BM-31 produced the most significant reduction in particle size and disruption of the ordered structure, resulting in approximately ten-fold and three-fold increases in cold-water solubility and swelling power, respectively, compared with its native counterparts. The improved hydration increased the bulk apparent viscosity and promoted the formation of a soft, hydrated, and viscous adsorbed film, thereby reducing friction through the development of a load-bearing lubricating layer. As a result, the BM-31 sample produced an order-of-magnitude reduction in friction coefficient (μ = 0.03) and a higher estimated minimum film thickness (hmin = 0.69 μm) compared with native PMF (μ = 0.56; hmin = 0.05 μm) at an entrainment speed of 0.005 m s−1. The BM-31 sample showed strong concentration-dependent lubrication behavior, indicating that tribological performance was influenced not only by sample hydration behavior but also by particle concentration. Overall, controlled ball milling can be used as an effective strategy for improving lubricity of cereal flours by modulating particle size, structural order, and hydration capacity.

Natural pigments are increasingly explored as clean-label colourants and bioactive ingredients for functional food applications. However, their wider use remains constrained by pigment-specific instability, poor aqueous dispersibility, limited bioaccessibility, and sensitivity to light, oxygen, heat, pH, moisture, and complex food-matrix interactions. This review critically examines recent advances in encapsulation technologies for improving the stability, delivery, and application performance of natural pigments, including anthocyanins, carotenoids, chlorophylls, curcuminoids, betalains, and phycocyanin. The reviewed result indicates that effective pigment protection depends on the coordinated selection of pigment type, carrier structure, processing method, and target food matrix. Emulsion-based systems, Pickering emulsions, lipid carriers, liposomes, hydrogels, coacervates, colloidosomes, electrospun nanofibers, and crystalline carriers provide protection through distinct mechanisms, including interfacial barrier formation, reduced oxygen and light exposure, bilayer encapsulation, crosslinked network retention, reduced molecular mobility, and controlled dissolution. Processing technologies such as spray drying, freeze drying, ionotropic gelation, complex coacervation, electrospinning, and supercritical fluid processing are further evaluated with respect to structural control, scalability, and suitability for thermolabile pigments. The particular attention is given to emerging issues such as phycocyanin stabilization, betalain degradation during fermentation and storage, limited validation in real food matrices, and the need to link in vitro bioaccessibility with in vivo effectiveness. The present article provides an analytical and application-focused approach for choosing food-grade encapsulation methods that improve pigment stability, controlled release, bioaccessibility, and industrial relevance in functional food systems.

Plum kernels remain underutilized due to toxic cyanogenic glycosides. Detoxified plum kernel meal is a promising plant-based protein source; however, its extracted proteins exhibit limited techno-functionality, restricting their applications in food systems. This study investigates the effects of high-intensity ultrasound (HIUS) at varying durations (10, 20, 30, and 40 min) on the techno-functional, biochemical, structural, morphological, and thermal properties of detoxified plum kernel protein isolates (PKPI). Varying HIUS duration significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced solubility (1.08-fold), emulsifying capacity (1.21-fold), and foaming capacity (1.16-fold), with the most pronounced improvements observed in the PKPI sample treated at 30 mins (US-PKPI-30). Moderate HIUS treatment effectively maintained a balanced secondary structure of β-sheets (53.87 %), α-helix (9.08 %), and β-turns (16.87 %), optimizing flexibility and structural integrity. Structural changes and surface analysis indicated enhanced molecular flexibility due to HIUS treatment. US-PKPI-30 exhibited a ζ-potential of −18.3 mV, indicating improved dispersion and colloidal stability. Molecular weight distribution analysis showed that the primary structure of the protein remained intact after treatment. Particle size distribution and surface morphological analysis revealed reduced particle sizes, suggesting protein aggregate disruption. Detoxified plum kernel proteins are promising, and HIUS treatment could be an effective strategy for enhancing their techno-functionality as well as the utilization of plum processing waste.

Glycation, i.e., the covalent reaction between reactive carbonyl groups of sugar with biomolecules such as protein, lipid, or DNA, is integral to many physiological functions, including biolubrication. Although glycation, also commonly termed as “Maillard reaction”, has been used extensively to modify flavors and stabilize food colloids, its applications for achieving desired oral lubrication performance of food are in its infancy. This review discusses glycation as a biolubrication tool to provide stimulus to future designing of food colloids. Specifically, we examine how glycation drives biolubrication of soft tissues with examples of lubricin and mucin as “brush-like”, nature-engineered, high performance, aqueous lubricants. Recent advances in Maillard conjugation to modify tribology, rheology, adsorption, or surface hydrophobicity of dietary proteins are covered. Lastly, we transfer molecular rules from polymer physics to food colloid science to inspire repurposing glycation of dietary proteins to rationally design the next-generation of lubricious alternative protein-based foods that are often delubricating. 

This study aimed to compare the tribological and rheological properties of plant proteins versus their mixtures or conjugates with polysaccharides. We hypothesize that combining potato proteins (Po) with pectin (Pe) at various concentrations (0.5–5.0 wt%, ratios 1:1 and 1:2 w/w) will improve the lubrication performance of plant proteins by virtue of viscosity modification and boundary lubrication. Po showed shear thinning behavior with limited concentration-dependence in boundary and mixed lubricity. Pe on the other hand showed pronounced concentration-dependent flow and lubrication behavior delivering favorable boundary and viscous lubricity. Pe dominated the lubrication and high shear rate flow behavior in Po + Pe mixtures, governed mainly by the concentration of Pe and the hydrodynamic volume rather than the total concentration of the biopolymers. Maillard reaction (≤33% degree of conjugation) led to more negatively-charged protein-polysaccharide conjugates versus the sole biopolymers (p < 0.05). The conjugation decreased the second plateau shear viscosity of the Po + Pe mixtures and led to improvement in boundary and mixed lubricity when a reduced entrainment speed parameter was used. Findings from this study may inspire future studies combining plant proteins with polysaccharides to enhance their lubrication behavior and eventually improve the textural properties of plant-based foods. 

This study investigates the potential of superheated steam (SS) as a rapid and sustainable method for synthesising millet starch citrates with improved physicochemical and functional properties. Millet starch was esterified with citric acid (CA) under varying SS conditions (160-180 °C, 15-45 min) to optimise the degree of substitution (DS) and evaluate its influence on starch functionality. A range of DS values (0.023 to 0.121) were achieved, with the highest DS observed at 170 °C for 45 min. Structural analysis using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed successful esterification, with the appearance of a new peak at 1735 cm−1 indicating ester bond formation. X-ray diffraction showed a reduction in crystallinity with increasing DS, while polarised light microscopy and confocal scanning laser microscopy revealed alterations in molecular organisation. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated minimal disruption to granule morphology. Contact angle measurements indicated increased hydrophobicity, with water contact angles rising from 29.63° in native starch to 71.63° in high DS samples. Additionally, a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in amylose content and paste viscosities was observed, correlating with improved resistance to gelatinisation and retrogradation. In vitro digestibility analysis showed a substantial increase in resistant starch content, from 18.69 % in native starch to 40.11 % in high DS samples. These findings highlight SS as an efficient and eco-friendly technology for producing starch citrates with tailored functionalities, particularly suited for low-glycaemic response and health-promoting food applications. 

Bean proteins are valued in the food industry for their sustainability and functional diversity. This study investigates protein isolates from four high-altitude Himalayan beans—cranberry, hyacinth, brown kidney, and black turtle—evaluating their physicochemical, structural, thermal, molecular, nutritional, and functional properties across varying pH levels (3.0, 7.0, 9.0). Using response surface methodology, alkaline extraction parameters were optimized, yielding protein extraction efficiencies of 18.54–20.38% and recovery yields of 59.63–65.49% under optimal conditions (pH 10.0, 116 min extraction, 44 °C, and 14.24 mL/g solvent ratio). Among the beans studied, black turtle bean had the lowest protein content (23.44% db) and cranberry bean the highest (26.19% db). Hyacinth bean protein isolate (HBPI) displayed the highest protein concentration and, along with brown kidney (KBPI) and black turtle bean protein isolates (BBPI), showed superior amino acid profiles, with cysteine and methionine as limiting amino acids. At pH 3.0, all isolates reached peak hydrophobicity, zeta potential, and surface tension, with HBPI excelling in surface tension reduction and emulsion capacity despite its lower solubility and foaming ability. HBPI also showed a compact structure and a high denaturation temperature (91.07 °C). At pH 7.0, critical gelling concentrations (LGCs) showed enhanced efficacy, with CBPI and BBPI at 12% and HBPI and KBPI at 10%. FTIR and CD analyses indicated a dominant β-structure in the Amide I region, suggesting structural stability. These findings enhance our understanding of high-altitude bean proteins, supporting their potential in food and industrial applications. 

In-package cold plasma (ICP) is a widely used non-thermal method for microbial inactivation, but its potential for modifying food macromolecules remains largely unexplored. This study systematically evaluates the impact of different ICP treatment durations (1, 5, 10, and 20 min) on the structural, functional, and interfacial characteristics of soy protein isolate (SPI) to enhance its emulsifying performance. Among the treatments evaluated, a 5 min exposure produced the most desirable changes. This treatment induced partial unfolding of SPI through peptide bond cleavage. As a result, the surface hydrophobicity of 5 min ICP treated SPI (2406.15 ± 47.42) increased significantly compared to untreated SPI (1638.90 ± 45.04). The 5 min ICP treatment also induced significant structural alterations, including an increased random coil content and reduced α-helix and β-sheet structures. Additionally, it significantly reduced the particle size (221.76 ± 1.88 nm) compared to native SPI (246.16 ± 2.66 nm) due to structural disruption. Moreover, ICP induced oxidation of amino acid residues increased the zeta potential (−36.82 ± 0.64 mV) compared to native SPI (−30.66 ± 0.53 mV). Collectively, these modifications resulted in smaller emulsion droplet size (2.79 ± 0.78 μm), lower creaming indices, and improved viscoelastic properties. However, shorter treatment (1 min) had negligible effects, while prolonged exposure (20 min) caused excessive oxidation and protein aggregation, compromising emulsion stability. These findings indicate that intermediate-duration ICP treatment improves the structural and functional properties of SPI, making it suitable for stabilizing Pickering emulsions in food and nutraceutical applications. 

Grape seed polyphenols (GSP) were encapsulated in alginate-modified millet starch composite matrix using internal gelation. Millet starch was modified using ultrasound (US) for 10, 20, 30, and 40 min. The application of US reduced the long-range order and increased the short-range order of starch, consequently increasing its solubility. FESEM analysis revealed that US-treatment induced fissures and grooves on the surface of starch granules and disintegrated the starch particles. Particle size distribution analysis confirmed a significant reduction in mean particle size. US-treatment facilitated enhanced alginate-starch interactions owing to an increased surface area and improved hydrogen bonding, as corroborated by FTIR, XRD, and DSC results. The composite microencapsulates prepared from 40 min US-treated starch demonstrated the highest encapsulation efficiency (89.20 ± 1.10 %), heat and UV-light stability, and delayed GSP release in simulated gastrointestinal fluids. The best fit for the release behaviour of GSP from the composite microencapsulates was observed with Peppas-Sahlin model. 

Cold plasma (CP) is a state-of-the-art non-thermal technology with the potential to accelerate drying, preserve nutritional value, and inactivate enzymes in foods. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of multipin atmospheric pressure CP pretreatment (5, 10, and 20 min) on Refractance window drying (RWD) of apple slices (2 mm thick). The results showed that CP pretreatment could accelerate the drying process and shorten drying time by up to, with the best results obtained after a 10-min CP exposure. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the CP pretreatment significantly altered the surface morphology of apple slices by etching microchannels due to the bombardment of reactive plasma species, contributing to enhanced drying kinetics. The CP pretreatment also enhanced the rehydration ratio (up to 21.63%) and decreased the dried apple slices' hardness (up to 29.79%). CP pretreatment of 5, 10, and 20 min resulted in 18.33%, 39.4%, and 30.06% reductions in polyphenol oxidase enzyme activity, respectively. As a result, CP-pretreated samples showed better color values compared to other samples. Furthermore, compared to RWD samples alone, CP-pretreated apple slices retained significantly higher (P < 0.05) antioxidant activity, phenolics, flavonoids, and ascorbic acid content. 

Button mushrooms are perishable due to microbial spoilage and browning. The effect of in-package cold plasma CP treatment on the quality and shelf life of button mushrooms is presented. Samples were sealed inside a package with different gas combinations [80% O2 + 10% CO2 + 10% N2, 10% O2 + 10% CO2 + 80% N2, and 10% O2 + 80% CO2 + 10% N2], treated with CP for 15 min at 28 kV and stored at 4 °C for 7 days. Microbiological and physicochemical properties of button mushrooms (control, samples treated with direct cold plasma (DCP), and those packed in three different modified atmospheric packing (MAP) compositions) were analyzed on days 1, 4, and 7 after treatment. Following DCP and in-package CP treatment, the total bacterial count was reduced by 0.93 and 1.14 log CFU/g, while the yeast and mold count was reduced by 1.07 and 1.24 log CFU/g, respectively. In-package CP reduced PPO activity by 29%. Changes in physicochemical properties of button mushrooms were insignificant on day 1. MAP with high oxygen showed larger microbial reductions than the other two gas combinations. At the end of storage, all in-package CP treated button mushrooms maintained significantly (p < 0.05) better quality characteristics than control and DCP-treated mushrooms. The samples treated with CP and kept in a high O2 gas concentration exhibited better quality characteristics. Therefore, in-package CP technology with high O2 concentration can be used as a potential tool for the decontamination and shelf-life extension of button mushrooms. 

Resveratrol (RES) is a proven anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardioprotective compound. However, low bioavailability, poor water solubility, and sensitivity to UV light and heat limit RES's use in food applications. In this study, we aim to protect RES by encapsulating it in sodium alginate (NaAlg) matrix using internal gelation, followed by drying the moist microencapsulates using spray and freeze-drying techniques. The spray-dried microencapsulates exhibited a smaller mean diameter (5.57 ± 2.40 μm), higher encapsulation efficiency (91.32 ± 1.98%), and higher ζ-potential (−61.9 ± 2.33 mV) compared to freeze-dried microencapsulates. SEM images revealed the smooth and spherical surface of the spray-dried microencapsulates, while the freeze-dried samples exhibited irregular shapes and porous textures. FTIR results showed polyelectrolyte interactions between NaAlg, RES, and CaCO3. XRD and DSC results confirmed the incorporation of RES in the NaAlg matrix. Spray-dried microencapsulates demonstrate the highest RES retention of 80.89 ± 0.70% and 78.59 ± 0.27% after 4 h of UV light and thermal treatments, respectively. In vitro release studies showed that spray-dried microencapsulates demonstrate a delayed gastric release compared to freeze-dried microencapsulates. The release mechanism of RES from the microencapsulates was effectively described by the Shalin-Peppas model 

Bean proteins, known for their sustainability, versatility, and high nutritional value, represent a valuable yet underutilized resource, receiving less industrial attention compared to soy and pea proteins. This review examines the structural and molecular characteristics, functional properties, amino acid composition, nutritional value, antinutritional factors, and digestibility of bean proteins. Their applications in various food systems, including baked goods, juice and milk substitutes, meat alternatives, edible coatings, and 3D printing inks, are discussed. The physiological benefits of bean proteins, such as antidiabetic, cardioprotective, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects, are also presented, highlighting their potential for promoting well-being. Our review emphasizes the diversity of bean proteins and highlights ultrasound as the most effective extraction method among available techniques. Beyond their physiological benefits, bean proteins significantly enhance the structural, technological, and nutritional properties of food systems. The functionality can be further improved through various modification techniques, thereby expanding their applicability in the food industry. While studies have explored the impact of bean protein structure on their nutritional and functional properties, further research is needed to investigate advanced modification techniques and the structure-function relationship. This will enhance the utilization of bean proteins in innovative and sustainable food applications. 

Interest in plant-derived bioactive peptides (BAPs) is increasing due to their potential therapeutic effects, low toxicity, abundance, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. These peptides can be obtained by hydrolyzing plant proteins from a diverse range of sources, including legumes, cereals, grains, oilseeds, and tubers. This review discusses the benefits of these peptides on human health, addressing current challenges in translating research into practical use. The structural aspects of peptides combating hypertension and diabetes, encompassing structure–activity relationship studies, in vitro and in vivo methodologies, and absorption pathways are also discussed. Additionally, it explores the molecular features, physicochemical properties, gastrointestinal fate, and biological activities of various plant-derived peptides, including their potential in reducing blood pressure and blood sugar. These peptides hold promise as therapeutic agents in functional foods, supplements, and pharmaceuticals, pending rigorous human clinical trials to ascertain efficacy and safety. Successful trials could position plant-derived peptides as innovative antihypertensive and antidiabetic agents. 

Microbial contamination in animal-based foods is a significant global concern, impacting the food sector and public health. Cold plasma (CP) has recently emerged as a promising technique for microbial inactivation and shelf-life extension of animal-based foods. CP consists of ionised gas with molecular and sub-atomic elements and operates at or near room temperature, making it suitable for preserving heat-sensitive substances. It offers high microbial inactivation efficiency, minimal adverse effects, and environmental friendliness compared to chemical disinfectants. To address these challenges, we provide a thorough understanding of how these factors affect the efficacy of microbial inactivation while shedding light on its effects on quality parameters. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals of plasma, including its composition, various plasma systems, and the underlying mechanisms of plasma inactivation, to help novice researchers with the necessary foundation to delve into the complexities of plasma-based technologies effectively to strengthen food safety. CP is effective against various microbes and their toxins, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and spores. However, comparing the microbial reduction obtained in one CP system to others can be challenging for several reasons, such as diversity in system design and operating parameters, plasma chemistry and reactivity, microbial sensitivity, experimental conditions, and food matrix interactions.  

Millets are nutrient-dense and climate-resilient grains with significant potential to address global food security challenges. Despite their advantages, their industrial application is limited by suboptimal functional properties, microbial contamination, and the presence of antinutritional components. This chapter explores the application of cold plasma (CP) technology as an innovative, nonthermal processing technique to overcome these limitations. CP offers remarkable potential to enhance the physicochemical and functional properties of millets and their derivatives, including starch, proteins, and lipids. Furthermore, CP demonstrates exceptional efficacy in microbial inactivation, toxin degradation, and the reduction of antinutritional factors such as tannins and phytates, while also preserving the inherent nutritional qualities of millets. The chapter also examines the underlying mechanisms of CP-induced modifications of millets and their impact on improving millet safety, functionality, and shelf life. By incorporating CP across various stages of millet processing, the food industry can address existing barriers, unlocking new opportunities for millet-based products in health-focused and sustainable food systems. 

Proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids are biopolymers with unique physicochemical properties that make them ideal candidates for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds such as vitamins, antioxidants, and flavors. These biopolymers offer numerous promising characteristics, such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, availability, renewability, and cost efficiency, all of which are critical for developing materials for drug delivery applications. In addition to these characteristics, the properties of the biopolymers can be modified using various chemical, physical, and enzymatic methods, facilitating more target-specific delivery applications. This chapter provides an overview of the current state-of-the-art in the use of biopolymer-based formulations as food delivery systems. Various types of biopolymer-based delivery systems and their applications in food products, such as their ability to improve product stability, sensory attributes, and bioavailability are also discussed. Furthermore, the challenges and opportunities associated with the development of biopolymer-based delivery systems, as well as emerging trends in this field, are discussed. 

In recent decades, there has been a substantial shift in focus toward using nonthermal technology. Ozone and cold plasma treatment are becoming more prevalent for protein modification. Reactive species are generated during ozone and cold plasma treatment, which modify the structure, improve digestibility, and enhance the techno-functional properties of protein. Proteins can unfold, exposing hydrophobic groups and forming a flexible structure after such treatments. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of current knowledge in ozone and cold plasma protein modification to improve their applicability for a wide range of food applications. Meanwhile, how different reactive species interact with amino acids was thoroughly discussed.